German Agricultural Colonists in Zamość Entailment
Based on the provided source, the discussion of German colonization focuses on the efforts by the Austrian government to settle German farmer colonists in Galicia, specifically within the Zamość Ordynacja, towards the end of the 18th century.
Context and Goals of the Colonization:
The Austrian government had prior experience with colonization, particularly in Hungary, where German officials, peasants, and craftsmen were settled.
Colonization in Galicia began with patents from Maria Theresa in 1774, initially focusing on merchant and craft settlements in cities like Zamość, intended for German Protestants.
Joseph II significantly expanded this effort, viewing the settlement of Germans in Galicia as a desired means of Germanization and population growth. His aim was to weaken the national distinctiveness of the region and create a workforce of German administrative personnel to support Austrian government policy.
Under Joseph II, German farmer colonists were also included in the colonization efforts, with a clear tendency towards expanding this type of settlement (patent from September 17, 1781).
Austrian authorities believed that German farmers would serve as teachers for Polish peasants.
Due to a large influx of German farmers into Galicia, which led to difficulties, particularly material ones, the Austrian authorities considered placing surplus settlers on large landed estates. This was also motivated by the mass escape of serfs from private estates, which caused economic difficulties for landowners who might readily agree to supplement their labor force with foreign newcomers.
To encourage landowners, Emperor Joseph II issued a special patent on March 14, 1783, allowing estate owners to settle farmers from outside on their land.
The Austrian government actively promoted the value of German agricultural laborers, highlighting their supposed greater diligence, better customs, obedience, and abstinence from alcohol. These qualities were contrasted with Polish peasants, who were criticized as lazy and disobedient. The government believed that the positive example of German settlers would serve as a necessary school for Polish subjects.
Economic incentives were also offered: landowners who accepted colonists would receive 50 Rhenish guilders from the Supreme Treasury per colonist for “improving their condition,” part of which would transfer to the landowner. It was claimed that most colonists would be wealthy German farmers with their own means, making them more desirable settlers.
To alleviate suspicions, it was stipulated that colonists would not have the right to demand land allocations based on imperial patents; the size of land granted was left to the free decision of the landowners, noting it could be as little as a quarter or even a half-quarter of a *łan* or less.
Zamość Ordynacja's Involvement:
Despite significant reluctance from Galician estates to accept German colonists, the colonization efforts by the Austrian authorities coincided with the aspirations of ex-Chancellor Andrzej Zamojski to develop empty lands within the Zamość Ordynacja.
Andrzej Zamojski received letters regarding the colonists from Governor Count Brigido, indicating the government's interest in securing his cooperation. His agreement in 1784 to accept 2 weavers (*Tuchscherer*) from Frankfurt was met with satisfaction in the Viennese chancellery.
The exact reasons for the Ordynacja's involvement are unclear. While the initial agreement mentioned complying with “Highest intentions”, potential motivations included a desire to secure the Emperor's confirmation of the Ordynacja's statute (related to efforts to keep the entire estate within one partition), belief in the skills and diligence of Germans (supported by individual experiences of magnates), the aim to develop the estate's economy (affected by wars), stimulate industry and animal husbandry, or even a plan to create small, self-sufficient farms as economic experiments. The prospect of receiving money from the government for accepting colonists was also a tempting financial incentive, given the Ordynacja's less-than-ideal financial situation in the late 18th century.
In the autumn of 1784, Andrzej Zamojski agreed to accept 80 German farmer families. Joseph II declared this decision a “patriotic act” and ordered it publicized, likely hoping other Galician magnates would follow suit.
Conditions for Colonists in the Ordynacja:
The settlement conditions were defined by two agreements: one from September 14, 1784 (approved by Joseph II), and another from May 1, 1785 (for an additional 10 colonists). The second agreement largely became the practical basis for regulating the colonists' situation.
Each family was to receive land for 30 *korcy* of sowing, equivalent to 12672 Polish square *łokci*, or 23 *morgi* and 89 *pręty*. This area included 1 *korzec* for a house and garden, 5 *korcy* for meadow, and 24 for arable field.
The land for the house, farm buildings, and garden was to form an inseparable unit. The division of the remaining land depended on the Ordynacja's administration.
Land was provided according to its yield (plons), classified into three categories: Class I (8-9 grains yield or more), Class II (6-7 grains), and Class III (4-5 grains). Meadows were also similarly classified.
Annual rent (*czynsz*) was charged per *korzec* of sowing area based on the land class: 55 *krajcarów* for the best class, 45 for the medium, and 35 for the worst. This rent covered the entire settlement except for fallow land. Colonists were granted a three-year exemption from dues. After this period, rent was payable in two installments (January 1 and July 1) to the Ordynacja's treasury. The entire colonist community in a given village was responsible for the regular payment of rent. Special notebooks were to be kept by each family to record payments.
The land was granted free of charge as “emphyteusis,” or hereditary lease. Initially, land was to come from rent-based fields (*czynszowe*) and demesne fields (*folwarczne*); later, it was specified to come from empty lands (*pustki*) and demesne areas. The use of demesne land for colonists caused dissatisfaction among Polish peasants. Colonists shared pastures with the village community and participated in maintaining the communal shepherd. Damages caused by their livestock resulted in compensation according to village elder resolution and a penalty. They were eventually to receive separate plots for poultry, calves, and piglets.
Each family received a house with a chamber and kitchen, covered with straw. Rooms had floors, and the kitchen had a masonry stove with an oven and chimney. The house was to be built according to a design for colonists on crown lands.
Colonists received a stable for 8 cattle. Initially, they were to build it themselves with materials from the Ordynacja, but the 1785 agreement stipulated the Ordynacja would build it. A barn was also promised. Colonists had to contribute to the construction based on their ability. Damages were to be repaired at the colonists' expense. Buildings, like land, were held under perpetual lease.
The Ordynacja was to sow the land granted to colonists free of charge using the three-field system (winter grain, spring grain, fallow).
Each settlement received, for a fee, a pair of horses (including one mare), a pair of oxen, two cows, and one sow. This livestock was to be of good quality. The Ordynacja provided free breeding services.
Agricultural tools provided included a wheeled cart, a plow, a harrow with iron spikes, and a spade.
Livestock and tools were recorded in a special book with their current price, and colonists confirmed receipt with a signature (often a cross). The cost had to be repaid over six years in equal installments, starting either January 1, 1789 (for the first group, after 5 years) or January 1, 1791 (for the second group).
The quantity and type of livestock were stipulated as inviolable in the 1785 agreement, and selling livestock without special permission was forbidden.
In villages with at least 6 colonist families, a land register was created detailing personal information, possessions, rent amount, and other dues to the Ordynacja, as well as imperial contributions. Entries in this register were considered “eternal law” and could not be changed, although land changes were noted in separate protocols.
Besides rent, the primary feudal obligation, colonists were required to perform 12 days of labor (*żniwa*, harvest) per year for 10 *krajcarów* per day (with an axe). If more days were required, a special agreement had to be made as with hired laborers. The 1785 agreement increased requirements: after 3 years of exemption, each farmer-colonist had to perform 8 days of foot duty (*pańszczyzna piesza*) per year, for building work, mills, or harvest. No more than 2 days per week could be demanded for these tasks, paid at 10 *krajcarów* per day.
Colonists were liable for public works (*szarwark*) on par with the community, as well as quartering imperial militia and providing transport (*forszpany*).
Contributions to the monarchy were paid voluntarily and not deducted from Ordynacja dues. Special notebooks were kept for these payments. If a colonist couldn't pay taxes, the Ordynacja paid for them, but the colonist had to work off the debt (7.5 *krajcarów* per day with a pair of oxen, 5 *krajcarów* on foot).
Colonists were not required for other duties but could voluntarily hire themselves out for “lord's services”. The Ordynacja was forbidden from taking children, laborers (*parobków*), or maids from colonists for folwark or village service.
The Ordynat retained the right of first instance jurisdiction over the colonists, similar to other subjects. He also had direct dominion (*dominium directum*) over the granted land and possessions, allowing him to remove a colonist under specific circumstances. Upon death, the property passed to legal heirs, who could farm it together or transfer their rights for compensation.
A colonist could be removed for laziness and poor management or failure to pay rent for 2 years due to obvious insolvency. However, the approval of the Zamość *cyrkuł* was required, demonstrating the protection German colonists received from administrative authorities, backed by the monarch's will.
Colonists could not incur debt burdening the property for 15 years. After this period, with the lord's knowledge, they could sell their farm, provided the buyer took on the associated obligations. Only a German could purchase the property, ideally one without other possessions and with no issues in the Ordynacja. Colonists were prohibited from owning two farms in the Ordynacja; if acquired (e.g., through inheritance), one had to be sold within a year and a day.
If, after 15 years, a colonist was deemed unfit to remain, they received six months' notice to find a buyer. If unsuccessful, the Ordynat could remove them and settle another person, preferably German. The farm could not be merged into the *folwark*.
Firewood was provided free from Ordynacja forests from May to October (one cart per week) and November to April (two carts per week). This wood came from fallen trees, windthrows, and stumps. Abuse was punishable. If firewood became scarce (confirmed by the *cyrkuł*), colonists would have to buy it like other subjects.
Colonists paid the 16th measure for using Ordynacja mills, as per Austrian patents. Special agreements were made if a colonist was granted use of a mill or inn.
Colonists were subject to the Ordynacja's *propinacja* law, strictly forbidden from buying alcohol elsewhere without permission. They were promised good, cheap alcohol from the Ordynacja.
Colonists dug their own wells, receiving materials from the estate. Fishing in the lord's ponds was forbidden. In larger settlements (at least 6 families), mayors (*wójtów*) were elected. Their election required approval from the estate administration. The mayor's role was to oversee the colonists' compliance with the agreement; they received no exemption or payment for this duty.
Colonists on *folwark* land did not pay tithes. If they had querns (*żarna*), they paid a “quern fee” (*Żarnowe*), mentioned in land inventories but not the contract.
To support colonists until their first harvest, the Ordynat provided non-repayable food assistance until July 1 of the first year: 4 *krajcarów* for an adult, 2 for a child, half in money, half in kind. This aid came from government subsidies of 250 Rhenish guilders (1000 Polish guilders) per family. Colonists were housed free of charge. These subsidies were particularly necessary as German farmers arriving in Galicia were generally not well-off.
Practical Situation and Discrepancies:
Based on the agreements, 90 families of German farmers were accepted into the Ordynacja. They were settled in the Sitaniec and Szczebrzeszyn estates.
Available data indicates colonists were settled in Białobrzegi, Brody, Niedzieliska, Lipsko, Huszczka Wielka and Mała, Korchów, Płoskie, Różaniec, Rogóżno, and Zamch.
A list from 1800 shows 100 families, suggesting more Germans were accepted outside the official agreements. Reports from 1784 mention 84 families receiving food aid. Some families might have remained from an earlier group of settlers in Galicia.
Discrepancies in the number of colonists and land area led to efforts to regularize the situation in the 19th century. An abuse report from 1850 listed land excesses in several villages.
The settlement of German colonists caused concern among Polish peasants, who feared eviction. However, they were assured that colonists would be settled on *folwark* and empty lands, not on the land of Ordynacja peasants (specifically, *zakupnicy*). This was largely true, as land for colonists came mainly from empty lands and *nowizny* (newly cultivated land), consistent with the agreements.
Jewish residents in the Ordynacja also faced the threat of dispossession but managed to protect their property through clever means, including wealthy Jews paying taxes for the poor and creating fictitious lists of beggars. New difficulties arose with the acceptance of colonists, particularly preparing fields for sowing. There was a lack of sufficient farm tools on the *folwarks*. Preparing the land for colonists burdened the *pańszczyzna* peasants, who often lacked the necessary tools. Expenses were incurred to hire plows from neighboring villages.
Providing timber for construction also created significant work for the forest service. Distributing financial and material aid during the winter of 1784 also added to the workload.
In practice, deviations from the agreements were frequent, both by the Ordynacja's administration and the colonists. Abuses were significant enough to prompt administrative regularization efforts based on the 1785 agreement in the 19th century.
While documentation highlights colonist violations, the Ordynacja's administration was also often at fault. Failure to meet contract conditions by the Ordynat served as a pretext for colonists to resist obligations. Leaseholders (*dzierżawcy*), prevalent in the Ordynacja, were particularly problematic, viewing the colonists' settlement through the lens of their own needs.
Common violations against colonists included arbitrary charges (*narzutami*) and additional duties not specified in the agreement. Converting rent payments into *pańszczyzna* (feudal labor) was also practiced. Colonists complained that they were forced into feudal burdens (*pańszczyzny*) they did not know in their home country.
The practice of collecting rent from part of the land and demanding *pańszczyzna* from the rest became common, driven by the constant need for free labor on *folwark* lands. A request from Horyszów colonists to be freed from *pańszczyzna* was denied because the *folwark* needed laborers, not rent-payers, for its extensive fields and meadows.
The Ordynacja's administration did not show a strong willingness to correct the inaccuracies stemming from non-compliance with the contract.
On the other hand, the Ordynacja's stance might have been a reaction to the colonists' behavior, as they were often unwilling to adhere to the contract rules. Their actions often contradicted the positive opinions about German settlers expressed by Austrian authorities.
The emphasized “calmness” of German farmers was often lacking in practice. After their exemption years ended, formal disputes over rent began. Colonists refused to pay into the Ordynacja's treasury. They employed various methods to evade this duty, such as jointly sowing fields with Polish peasants while leaving their own land fallow and claiming lack of yields as a reason for non-payment.
Reports noted the Germans' neglect of their farms, sometimes leading to ruin. Numerous cases of desertion occurred, even within a few years of settlement.
Like Polish peasants, colonists exploited the Ordynat's forests, sometimes leading to altercations with forest service personnel.
The colonists' moral standing was not always exemplary; reports mentioned frequent brawls even among German settlers themselves. Drunkenness was also common among Germans.
Non-compliance with the agreements negatively impacted the colonists' situation and the success of the settlement plan. The lack of adherence created opportunities for abuses on both sides. Colonists often ignored land registers and payment notebooks. They misused the provision for building materials, taking timber for structures beyond the house, stable, and barn. Changes in colonist ownership occurred without required formalities.
Key control mechanisms slipped from the Ordynacja's administration, and widespread breaches of agreement terms undermined their meaning. This situation allowed both the estate administration and colonists to interpret uncontrolled contract provisions to their advantage.
The Ordynacja used the situation to draw colonists into *folwark* labor by imposing *pańszczyzna* duties. Colonists, although losing their privileged position, gained greater freedom in managing their property, leading to a form of territorial expansion. Early 19th-century data shows significant excesses in land held by colonists compared to the 18th-century agreements.
Germans resisted attempts to subdue them through cunning and a resolute stance, bolstered by the support they received from the Austrian administration. S. Leszczyński warned Polish nobility against this attitude from foreigners, stating that “people from foreign lands do not voluntarily come to be enslaved”.
Outcomes and Conclusions:
The lack of complete source information makes a general assessment of the material state of German colonists in the Ordynacja at the end of the 18th century difficult. However, a report from the early 19th century on 28 German families in the Starozamojski estate indicated they were doing quite well, with good buildings and livestock. While this reflects the situation of the second generation, it suggests that German settlers in the Ordynacja maintained a privileged status until the mid-19th century. This advantage allowed them to compete effectively with Polish peasants, in line with the occupying government's goals.
Sources don't provide enough information to determine if German colonists' farming methods in the late 18th century were better than those of Ordynacja peasants. The lack of mention suggests no significant differences.
Colonists, like *pańszczyzna* peasants, resorted to loans from the Ordynat's treasury.
Daily practice did not show significant economic initiative from the colonists in the Ordynacja; rather, their behavior seems to have disappointed the Ordynat. Evidence for this includes settling “local people” on abandoned colonist lands, contrary to agreement terms.
Andrzej Zamojski, the initiator of the German farmer settlement, later refused to accept more German families even when they arrived. In 1791, 25 families stayed in Zamość without finding a place. In 1792, the estate administration attempted to shift the responsibility of settling 18 colonists onto the Jews, threatening a large payment if they refused. When the Jews suggested settling them on village land, they were told that the Ordynacja's peasants, numbering several thousand, had the first right, not the Jews.
Interest in settling German colonists in the Ordynacja increased in the 19th century, driven by the arrival of more German farmers (attracted by the good reputation of treatment there) and particularly the rent reforms of 1833. This led to a significant increase in the number of settlements with German colonists and the area of land allotted to them.
In conclusion, the activity of German farmers in the Zamość Ordynacja at the end of the 18th century does not confirm the exaggeratedly positive opinions held by some German historians. The first German colonists in the Ordynacja were quickly Polonized; descendants in Sitaniec soon forgot German. This Polonization was common in Galicia and a natural consequence of integrating into the Polish environment. Few of the original Josephinian colonists in Galicia remained due to relocation and Polonization.
The author concludes that the example of German colonists in the Zamość Ordynacja provides further evidence contradicting the assertions of German historians regarding the role of the German element in Polish rural economy, which they often overstated.
The Zamość Majorat (Ordynacja Zamojska), located in Galicja (Galicia), became part of the Austrian partition of Poland towards the end of the 18th century. This period saw the Austrian government, particularly under Emperor Joseph II, actively promoting German colonization. The government's motives for colonization in Galicja included Germanization, increasing the population, weakening national distinctiveness, and creating a pool of German workers to support administration and government policies. Economic reasons also played a role, such as addressing labor shortages on private estates caused by peasants fleeing. German farmers were specifically targeted, with the expectation that they would serve as teachers for Polish peasants, demonstrating better work habits and obedience.
Against this backdrop, the Zamość Majorat decided to participate in the colonization effort. The Ordynat (holder of the Majorat) at the time, Andrzej Zamojski, received letters about the colonists from Governor Count Brigido. While his exact motivations are subject to hypothesis due to a lack of concrete source evidence, potential reasons included responding to Austrian propaganda, a desire to fulfill the highest intentions (“dopełnienia Najwyższych zamiarów”) of the Emperor, aiming to secure the Emperor's confirmation of the Majorat's statute, or potentially reviving the Majorat's economy which had suffered from wartime destruction in the 17th and early 18th centuries. There was also a contemporary opinion among magnates regarding the skills and diligence of Germans, sometimes based on individual experience. A. Zamojski sought to manage vacant lands and revitalize industry and livestock farming. He also considered establishing small, self-sufficient farms as an economic experiment, potentially like the German colonist settlements and later Jewish farms. The prospect of receiving financial assistance from the government for accepting colonists, especially given the Majorat's material state in the late 18th century, may also have been a motivating factor.
In the autumn of 1784, Ordynat A. Zamojski agreed to accept 80 German farmer families into his estates. Emperor Joseph II recognized this decision as a “patriotic act” and ordered it to be publicly announced via circulars, likely hoping other Galician magnates would follow suit.
The terms for settling colonists in the Majorat were outlined in two agreements between Ordynat Zamojski and the Zamość district circular office, dated September 14, 1784, and May 1, 1785. The second agreement became the primary basis for regulating the colonists' situation in the Majorat. According to these agreements, the colonists were granted land free of charge under a perpetual lease (“in emphyteusim”). The first agreement mentioned land from czynsz (rented) fields and demesne (folwark) lands, while the second specified land from wastelands and folwark areas. Each family was allotted land for 30 korcy of sowing, equivalent to about 23 morgs and 89 rods. This area was designated for a house, garden, meadow, and arable fields, with arable land classified based on yield (Class I, II, III).
Colonists were subject to an annual rent (czynsz) calculated per korzec of sowing, varying by land class. Rent payments began after a three-year exemption period (“wolnizna”) and were due in two installments annually, paid directly to the Majorat's treasury. The entire community of colonists settled in a village was collectively responsible for ensuring regular rent payments.
Beyond rent, colonists received various benefits and had other obligations. The Ordynat committed to providing free building materials for their homes, stables, and barns. The 1785 agreement also stipulated that the Ordynat would build the stables himself. Colonists were expected to contribute labor during the construction of these buildings. They were granted multi-year exemptions from services to the court and had access to pastures, requiring their participation in maintaining the communal shepherd. Livestock (horses, oxen, cows, pigs) and farming tools were provided on credit, to be repaid over six years after an initial six-year period. Selling livestock or altering their quantity or type without permission was forbidden. Land given to colonists was sown for free by the court using the three-field system.
In villages with at least six colonist families, a land book was maintained, recording personal details, possessions, rent, and other dues, including imperial contributions. These entries were considered “eternal law” and required signatures from both parties and the circular office. Colonists were also liable for public works (szarwark) on par with other villagers, and for quartering imperial militia and providing transport (forszpan). While they paid voluntary contributions to the monarchy, these could not be offset against their obligations to the Majorat. The Ordynat held first instance jurisdiction over the new settlers and had the right of *dominium directum* over the land, allowing for the removal of a colonist in specific cases, such as laziness, poor management, or two years of non-payment due to instability. However, such removals required the approval of the Zamość circular office, which was seen as protection for German colonists by the administrative authorities, reflecting the monarch's will.
Colonists were prohibited from incurring debt on their holdings for 15 years. After this period, they could sell their farm with the court's knowledge, provided the buyer assumed the associated obligations. Crucially, the buyer had to be German, without existing property, and acceptable to the Majorat. Colonists were not permitted to own two farms within the Majorat. Free firewood from Majorat forests was provided from May to October and November to April, taken from fallen trees, windfalls, and stumps. They also paid a fee (the 16th measure) for using Majorat mills and were subject to the Majorat's propination law, restricting their purchase of alcohol to Majorat sources.
Initially, 90 German farmer families were settled, mainly on folwark and wasteland areas, in villages across the Sitańce and Szczebrzeszyn keys. Specific locations mentioned include Białobrzegi, Brody, Niedzieliska, Lipsk, Huszczka Wielka and Mała, Korchów, Płoskie, Rogóźno, Różaniec, Sitańce, and Zamch. An 1800 list shows 100 families, suggesting more than the contracted number were settled.
The arrival of German colonists caused anxiety among Polish peasants, who feared losing their land, but they were reassured that their holdings would not be used for the settlers. Jewish inhabitants also faced a threat of dispossession but managed to avoid it.
However, settling the colonists presented challenges for the Majorat, such as needing more farming tools and labor to prepare fields and managing the supply of building wood and aid. In practice, both the Majorat administration and the colonists frequently deviated from the agreements. Lessees of Majorat estates were particularly noted for prioritizing their own needs. Common violations against colonists included imposing unauthorized charges and duties and substituting czynsz payments with corvée labor. Colonists complained they were forced into feudal obligations they hadn't known in their home country.
Colonists, in turn, did not always adhere to the agreements. After the exemption period, disputes over rent were common, with colonists refusing to pay. Reports indicated neglect of farms, sometimes leading to ruin, and numerous cases of desertion. They also illegally took wood from Majorat forests, sometimes leading to confrontations. Drunkenness was reported as common.
The widespread non-compliance by both sides undermined the effectiveness of the agreements. It created an environment ripe for abuses, with the court imposing corvée and colonists gaining more freedom in managing their land, sometimes expanding their holdings beyond the contracted size. This deviation from expected behavior and economic initiative may have disappointed the Ordynat. Evidence includes the Majorat settling “local people” on lands abandoned by colonists, contrary to the agreements, and A. Zamojski's reluctance to accept additional German families.
Despite the challenges and deviations, the German colonists were initially provided with conditions significantly better than those of the Polish peasants living in the Majorat. However, sources from the late 18th century do not clearly indicate that their farming methods were superior. While a 19th-century report suggests that some second-generation German colonists were doing well, their privileged status continued until the mid-19th century, allowing them to compete effectively with Polish peasants.
In conclusion, the experience of German agricultural colonists in the Zamość Majorat in the late 18th century, as described in the sources, does not support overly positive accounts of their role in Polish agriculture found in some German historiography. Many of the first generation did not maintain their holdings, and the colonists quickly underwent Polonization, with descendants losing the German language. The first German settlers in the Majorat did not demonstrate a greater vital force. Interest in settling German colonists in the Majorat revived in the 19th century, attracting more settlers due to a good reputation for treatment and spurred by rent reforms, leading to a significant increase in German settlements and landholdings by the mid-19th century.
Drawing on the sources, the situation of the German agricultural colonists in the Zamość Majorat towards the end of the 18th century was largely governed by specific agreements made with the Ordynat.
The terms for settling colonists in the Majorat were laid out in two main agreements:
_ The second agreement, dated May 1, 1785, was an additional agreement made when 10 more colonists were accepted. This second agreement became the primary basis for regulating the colonists' situation in the Majorat in practice.
According to these agreements, the colonists were granted land free of charge under a perpetual lease (“in emphyteusim”). The first agreement mentioned land from czynsz (rented) fields and demesne (folwark) lands, while the second agreement specified that land for the colonists would come from wastelands and folwark areas. Each family was allotted land for 30 korcy of sowing, which was equivalent to about 23 morgs and 89 rods. This area was designated for a house, garden, meadow, and arable fields, with the arable land classified based on its yield (Class I, II, III).
The colonists were obligated to pay an annual rent (czynsz) calculated per korzec of sowing, with the amount varying based on the land class: 55 krajcarów for Class I, 45 krajcarów for Class II, and 35 krajcarów for Class III. This rent was a payment for the entire holding, excluding land left fallow according to the three-field system rotation. Rent payments were to begin after a three-year exemption period (“wolnizna”). Payments were due in two installments annually, on January 1st and July 1st, paid directly to the Majorat's treasury. The entire community of colonists settled in a village was collectively responsible for ensuring regular rent payments. In cases of unforeseen circumstances like elementary disasters or non-culpable farm destruction, temporarily insolvent colonists could repay the rent through labor or installments with permission. To track payments, colonists were required to keep special booklets.
Beyond the rent, the agreements outlined various benefits and other obligations for the colonists. The Ordynat committed to providing free building materials for their homes, stables, and barns. The 1785 agreement further stipulated that the Ordynat would build the stables himself, whereas the first agreement expected the colonists to build them with provided materials.
Colonists were expected to contribute labor during the construction of these buildings, under threat of compulsion. They were responsible for the cost of repairing any damage to the buildings during use. The buildings, like the land, were held under perpetual lease.
They were granted multi-year exemptions from services to the court.
Colonists had access to communal pastures, requiring their participation in maintaining the communal shepherd. They were liable for damages caused by their cattle on lordly or communal property.
Livestock (horses, oxen, cows, pigs) and farming tools were provided on credit, to be repaid over six years after an initial period (either 5 or 6 years depending on the group). Selling livestock or altering their quantity or type without permission was forbidden.
Land given to colonists was sown for free by the court using the three-field system.
In villages with at least six colonist families, a land book was maintained, recording personal details, possessions, rent, and other dues, including imperial contributions. Entries in this book were considered “eternal law” and required signatures from both parties and the circular office.
Colonists were also liable for public works (szarwark) on par with other villagers, and for quartering imperial militia and providing transport (forszpan).
While they paid voluntary contributions to the monarchy, these could not be offset against their obligations to the Majorat. If a colonist could not pay the imperial tax, the Ordynat would pay and the colonist would work off the debt.
The Ordynat held first instance jurisdiction over the new settlers, similar to other subjects. He also had the right of *dominium directum* over the land. This allowed for the removal of a colonist in specific cases, such as laziness, poor management, or two years of non-payment due to instability. However, such removals required the approval of the Zamość circular office, which was seen as a protection for German colonists by the administrative authorities, reflecting the monarch's will. If removed, they received six months' notice to find a buyer; if they didn't, the Ordynat could settle someone else, preferably German, on the land, but it could not be added to the folwark.
Colonists were prohibited from incurring debt on their holdings for 15 years. After this period, they could sell their farm with the court's knowledge, provided the buyer assumed the associated obligations. Crucially, the buyer had to be German, without existing property, and acceptable to the Majorat. Colonists were not permitted to own two farms within the Majorat; if they inherited one, they had to sell one within a year and a day.
Free firewood from Majorat forests was provided from May to October (one cartload per week) and November to April (two cartloads per week), taken from fallen trees, windfalls, and stumps. If firewood became scarce, confirmed by the circular office, colonists would have to buy it like other subjects.
They paid a fee (the 16th measure) for using Majorat mills, in line with Austrian patents. Special agreements were needed if a colonist was given charge of a mill or tavern.
Colonists were subject to the Majorat's propination law, restricting their purchase of alcohol to Majorat sources, although they were promised good quality alcohol at low prices.
They dug their own wells with materials from the court. They were forbidden from fishing in the lord's ponds. In larger groups, they were instructed to elect *wójt* (village head), subject to approval, to oversee adherence to the agreement without receiving any benefits.
Colonists settled on folwark lands did not pay tithes, but paid “żarnowe” (millstone fee) if they had millstones, although these specific fees were not in the contract but in land inventories.
Initially, the Ordynat provided material assistance (food aid in cash and kind) until the first harvest, funded in part by government subsidies of 250 Rhenish zlotys per family. They were also quartered for free.
Despite the detailed agreements, in practice, both the Majorat administration and the colonists frequently deviated from the terms. The administration, particularly lessees, imposed unauthorized charges and duties, and sometimes substituted czynsz payments with corvée labor, which colonists complained they were forced into despite not having known such obligations in their home country. The constant need for free labor on the folwark lands was a major driver for the administration substituting rent with corvée.
Colonists also failed to adhere to the agreements. After the exemption period, disputes over rent were common, with colonists refusing to pay and trying to avoid the obligation, sometimes by cultivating land jointly with Polish peasants and leaving their own land fallow. Reports indicated neglect of farms, sometimes leading to ruin, and numerous cases of desertion occurred within a few years of settlement. They also illegally took wood from Majorat forests, leading to confrontations with forest service. Drunkenness was reported as common among some groups.
The widespread non-compliance by both sides undermined the effectiveness of the agreements. It created an environment ripe for abuses, with the court imposing corvée and colonists gaining more freedom in managing their land, sometimes expanding their holdings beyond the contracted size. This deviation from expected behavior and economic initiative may have disappointed the Ordynat. Evidence includes the Majorat settling “local people” on lands abandoned by colonists, contrary to the agreements which stipulated finding another German, and A. Zamojski's reluctance to accept additional German families. Despite being given significantly better initial conditions than Polish peasants, the sources from the late 18th century do not clearly indicate their farming methods were superior. Attempts were made in the 19th century to regularize the situation based on the 1785 contract, highlighting the ongoing issues with adherence to the original terms.
Drawing on the sources and our conversation history, the situation of the German agricultural colonists in the Zamość Majorat at the end of the 18th century was primarily governed by specific agreements that detailed their rights and obligations regarding land and labor.
The foundation for the colonists' settlement was laid out in two main agreements with Ordynat Andrzej Zamojski: the first on September 14, 1784, approved by Emperor Joseph II, and the second, an additional agreement, on May 1, 1785, which became the primary basis for regulating their situation in practice.
Land:
According to the agreements, the colonists were granted land free of charge under a perpetual lease (“in emphyteusim”).
The land was to come from czynsz (rented) fields and demesne (folwark) lands according to the first agreement. The second agreement specified that land would be designated from wastelands and folwark areas. Polish peasants expressed concern about land being taken for colonists, but the Economic Council stated that ordynat lands, specifically folwark lands, were intended for the German settlers, not the lands of ordynat peasants.
Each family was allotted land for 30 korcy of sowing. This was equivalent to about 23 morgs and 89 rods. This area was allocated for a house, garden, meadow, and arable fields, with 1 korzec for the house/garden, 5 korcy for meadow, and 24 for arable fields.
The arable land was classified into three categories (Class I, II, III) based on expected yield, and meadows were similarly classified.
The land designated for the house, outbuildings, and garden was to form an inseparable whole. The Ordynat committed to providing free building materials for their homes, stables, and barns. The 1785 agreement specifically stated the Ordynat would build the stables himself, a change from the first agreement where colonists were expected to build with provided materials.
Colonists were expected to contribute labor during construction. They were responsible for the cost of repairs to buildings during use, which, like the land, were held under perpetual lease. Sources note that construction quality was sometimes poor.
The Ordynat held the right of *dominium directum* over the land. This allowed for the removal of a colonist in specific cases, such as laziness, poor management, or two years of non-payment due to instability. However, removal required the approval of the Zamość circular office, seen as a protection for German colonists reflecting the monarch's will. If removed after 15 years, they had six months to find a buyer; if they failed, the Ordynat could settle someone else, preferably German, but the land could not be added to the folwark.
A land book was to be maintained in villages with at least six colonist families, recording personal details, possessions, and dues. Entries in this book were considered “eternal law” and required signatures and circular office approval.
Colonists were prohibited from incurring debt on their holdings for 15 years. After this period, they could sell their farm with the court's knowledge, provided the buyer assumed the associated obligations. Crucially, the buyer had to be German, without existing property, and acceptable to the Majorat. Colonists could not own two farms within the Majorat; inherited farms had to be sold within a year and a day.
Initial plots for colonists were sown for free by the court using the three-field system. Despite the agreements, in practice, colonists often deviated. Reports indicated neglect of farms, sometimes leading to ruin, and numerous cases of desertion occurred. In the early 19th century, records show colonists held significant land surpluses compared to the original agreements. Contrary to the agreements, the Majorat administration sometimes settled “local people” on lands abandoned by colonists, rather than finding another German settler.
Labor:
Colonists were granted multi-year exemptions from services to the court (“wolnizna”), specifically three years from rent payments and some labor obligations.
The primary obligation after the exemption period was to pay an annual rent (czynsz). This rent was calculated per korzec of sowing and varied based on the land class: 55 krajcarów for Class I, 45 kr. for Class II, and 35 kr. for Class III. This payment was for the entire holding, excluding land left fallow. Rent was due in two annual installments.
The entire community in a village was collectively responsible for ensuring rent payments. Temporarily insolvent colonists could repay rent through labor or installments with permission. Special booklets were required for tracking payments.
Beyond rent, the agreements outlined specific labor obligations:
Contribution of labor during building construction.
The 1784 agreement specified 12 days of harvest labor per year for remuneration (10 kr. per day), with additional labor requiring a special agreement.
The 1785 agreement increased labor demands, requiring each colonist farmer to perform 8 days of foot corvée (pańszczyzna) per year after the three-year exemption, for work on lord's buildings, mills, harvest, or haymaking. This was limited to a maximum of 2 days per week, also paid at 10 kr. per day.
Colonists were liable for public works (szarwark) and for quartering imperial militia and providing transport (forszpan) on par with other villagers.
If a colonist could not pay the imperial tax, the Ordynat would pay it, and the colonist would work off the debt at a rate of 7.5 kr. for a day's work with oxen or 5 kr. for foot work.
The court was forbidden from taking children, farmhands, or maids from colonist families for service on the folwark or in the village.
Initially, the Ordynat provided material assistance (food aid in cash and kind) until the first harvest, partly funded by government subsidies. They were also quartered for free.
In practice, deviations were common from both sides. The Majorat administration, particularly lessees, imposed unauthorized charges and duties. They also frequently substituted czynsz payments with corvée labor, driven by the constant need for free labor on folwark lands. Colonists complained that they were forced into feudal burdens (pańszczyzna) which they had not known in their home country.
Colonists also failed to adhere to their labor/payment obligations. After the exemption period, disputes over rent were common, with colonists refusing to pay and trying to avoid the obligation. Some cultivated land jointly with Polish peasants and left their own land fallow to avoid payments.
Overall, while the agreements laid out specific terms for land tenure (free perpetual lease of a defined plot, restrictions on sale and debt) and labor obligations (rent, limited corvée/paid labor, public works, tax work-off), the practical reality saw widespread non-compliance. The administration imposed unauthorized corvée, while colonists neglected farms, failed to pay rent, and even deserted, undermining the intended structure and leading to a less regulated situation where both sides interpreted the terms to their advantage.
Based on the provided source and our conversation history, the Austrian administration played a pivotal role in initiating, promoting, and overseeing the German agricultural colonization in Galicia, including within the Zamość Majorat at the end of the 18th century.
Here's a discussion of the Austrian administration's involvement:
Initiating and Promoting Colonization:
Colonization in Galicia began with the patents of Maria Theresa in 1774, initially focusing on German merchants and craftsmen, with Zamość listed among the target towns.
Emperor Joseph II, a strong proponent of colonization, significantly expanded this effort. He saw the settlement of Germans as a desirable measure for Germanization and population growth. His aim was to weaken the national distinctiveness of the annexed territory and create a pool of German workers to support the Galician administration and Austrian government policy.
Joseph II's patent of September 17, 1781, specifically included German farmers (rolnicy), indicating a clear tendency to expand this type of settlement. Austrian authorities believed German farmers would serve as teachers for Polish peasants.
The genesis of Joseph II's colonization policy is linked to his observation of the economic backwardness and low population density in Galicia during his travels in 1773.
Faced with a large influx of German farmers and associated difficulties, the Austrian authorities began considering placing settlers on large private estates. They hoped landowners, struggling with labor shortages due to peasant flight, would be receptive. Joseph II issued a special patent on March 14, 1783, allowing landowners to settle external farmers on their estates.
Encouraging Landowner Participation:
Due to the reluctance of many Galician landowners to accept colonists, the Austrian government actively worked to promote the value of German agricultural workers.
Official statements were used to encourage landowners, emphasizing that those who accepted colonists into their estates would “serve the monarch”. The tone of government circulars regarding colonists was notably milder, even “ingratiating,” compared to everyday strict regulations.
Propaganda extolled the benefits of accepting German farmers, highlighting their supposed greater diligence, better customs, obedience, and abstinence compared to Polish peasants, who were often criticized as lazy and disobedient. German settlers were presented as a necessary example and “school” for Polish subjects to improve their work ethic and obedience.
The administration offered economic incentives: a promise of 50 Rhenish zlotys from the Highest Treasury for each colonist family “to improve their condition,” part of which was intended for the landowner. Landowners were also assured that most colonists would be well-off farmers with their own means.
To address landowner concerns, the administration stipulated that colonists *could not* demand land allotments based on imperial patents; the size of their land was left to the free decision of the dominium, potentially even allowing for much smaller plots than initially envisioned.
Involvement in the Zamość Majorat Settlement:
Ordynat Andrzej Zamojski's agreement to accept 80 German farmer families in the autumn of 1784 was a significant event for the Austrian administration's colonization plans.
Joseph II officially recognized Zamojski's decision as a “patriotic activity” in a decree dated December 23, 1784. This decision was publicized through circulars to encourage other landowners to follow Zamojski's example.
The initial agreement between Ordynat Zamojski and the Zamość circular office on September 14, 1784, regarding the colonists, was approved by Emperor Joseph II himself. This highlights the Emperor's direct involvement and support for this specific settlement.
The preliminary text of the 1784 agreement explicitly stated that the Zamość Ordynacja, based on its experience and “to fulfill the Highest intentions” (Najwyższych zamiarów), wished to help settle German families.
Oversight and Protection of Colonists:
The agreements stipulated the involvement of the Zamość circular office in overseeing the colonists' situation.
Crucially, the circular office's approval was required to remove a colonist from their land, even in cases of laziness, poor management, or non-payment due to instability. This requirement is specifically interpreted in the source as “open protection” (jawna protekcja) of German colonists by the administrative authorities, reflecting the “will of the monarch”.
Entries in the land book detailing the colonists' possessions and dues were considered “eternal law” and required the signature and approval of the circular office.
Future decisions, such as requiring colonists to purchase firewood if Ordynat forests ran out, needed to be confirmed by the circular office.
Austrian patents dictated that colonists pay a specific fee (1/16th measure) for using Ordynat mills.
Financial and Material Support:
The Austrian government provided government subsidies (zasiłki rządowe) amounting to 250 Rhenish zlotys per family (1000 Polish zlotys) to the Ordynat. These funds were used to provide material assistance, including cash and in-kind food aid, to the colonists until their first harvest.
The source notes that this assistance was particularly needed because German farmers arriving in Galicia were generally not well-off.
Practical Outcomes:
The support from the Austrian administration gave the German colonists a “quite decisive stance” against attempts to impose unauthorized burdens or subjugate them.
The state of privilege for German settlers in the Ordynacja lasted until the mid-19th century, partly as a result of this comprehensive protection and the administration's favoring of them.
Despite the administration's preference for German settlers, the source notes that when colonists abandoned their farms, the Ordynat administration sometimes settled “local people” instead of finding another German, which was contrary to the agreements.
In summary, the Austrian administration, under Joseph II, was the driving force behind the colonization of German farmers in Galicia. They actively promoted the settlement through patents, propaganda, and financial incentives, viewing it as a means of Germanization, population increase, and agricultural improvement. They established direct links with landowners like Andrzej Zamojski and incorporated oversight mechanisms, such as the circular office's required approval for removals and validation of land records, to protect the colonists and ensure their privileged position, which often put them in a better situation than the local Polish peasants.