Based on the provided sources, here is a discussion of German colonization in the southeastern part of the Kingdom of Poland between 1815 and 1864.

The primary reasons for the influx of German colonists to Polish lands in the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries were socio-economic. Psychological explanations, such as a supposed natural instinct for wandering and expansion among German peasants, are considered lacking objectivity and scientific basis. Colonization was a consequence of the situation in German agriculture, particularly in Prussia during the 17th-18th centuries, where land concentration by large owners and social stratification among peasants created a poorer population group inclined to migrate for material reasons. These processes intensified in the 19th century due to Prussian land reforms that sanctioned primary accumulation in agriculture and dispossessed thousands of peasant families according to landowner interests.

Some of these dispossessed peasants moved eastward because Polish territories offered favorable conditions for settlement. Land was cheap, and foreign settlers were sought by both the government and individual landowners.

After 1815, the authorities of the Kingdom of Poland actively encouraged planned settlement to populate vacant lands in government estates, which had been devastated by military actions and troop movements between 1806 and 1815. Landowners were also eager to settle colonists, either replacing previously evicted peasants or on previously uncultivated areas, aiming to increase their income through *laudemium* (entry fees) and higher rents (*czynsz*).

Additionally, the friendly attitude of Polish administrative authorities towards German immigrants traditionally favored colonization. Immigrants were generally exempted from customs duties, passport fees, and military service, and were guaranteed a multi-year period of exemption from obligations (*wolnizna*). However, in the 1830s-1840s, with a large influx into private estates, these regulations became stricter, aiming to transform spontaneous migration into organized settlement based on prior recruitment, aligned with local capabilities and interests.

Before 1815, there were few German colonies in the southeastern part of the Kingdom of Poland (the area corresponding administratively to the Lublin and Podlasie governorates during the period). One significant concentration existed in the Zamość district, particularly within the Zamość Estate, established in the late 18th century as part of Josephine colonization. Another settlement point was in the Żelechów area. A third began to develop slowly in the Chełm area. Overall, before 1815, there were about 10 independent German colonies and 8 mixed colonies in the then-Lublin and Podlasie departments. After 1815, the development of foreign settlement was initially slow. While settlement in the Zamość Estate was secondary (Tochtersiedlung), the Chełm area grew mainly due to influx from Prussia. Several new colonies were also founded near Parczew. A larger number of colonists arrived in the 1830s-1840s, settling on government and private lands in the Łuków and Siedlce districts. More dynamic growth in German settlement occurred in other areas, especially the Chełm, Lubartów, and Lublin districts, only after 1860. By the end of the period discussed, there were almost 100 German colonies in the southeastern part of the Kingdom of Poland. The total number of settlements grew from 348 in 1827 to approximately 1,100 in 1863, and the number of colonists increased from 4,970 in 1847 to around 6,000 in 1863.

The conditions under which colonists settled varied depending on whether they were brought in by landowners or arrived independently. Those arriving independently often searched for the best conditions, sometimes moving multiple times. They were described as very fluid and mobile, not attached to one place. Before settling, colonists sometimes presented their own proposals, but more often they accepted the conditions offered by the landowner. Contracts, sometimes oral, were drawn up specifying rights and, especially, obligations.

Early contracts in the Zamość Estate (late 18th century) were very favorable, reflecting the protective policy of the Josephine administration towards German settlers in Galicia. Based on these contracts, each family received 30 *korcy* of land (23 morgów, 39 prętów) in perpetual lease, along with a house, farm buildings, and livestock (horses, oxen, cows, pig, wagon, plow, etc.). They were exempted from rent and other taxes for the first 3 years, received financial and food support in the first year, and had the right to forest servitude. After 15 years, a settlement could be sold with the landlord's consent, but only to another German. Division of settlements was not allowed, and lazy or indebted colonists could be removed, though this required confirmation from the district authority.

In the 19th century, contracts in the Zamość Estate were similar in outline but less favorable to the colonists. The exemption period was maintained at 3 years for empty land and 6 years for clearings. Rent was paid in installments, and an obligation of 8 days of harvest labor per year for payment was required. Material for buildings (wood, stone) was free, but bricks and lime had to be paid for over 10 years. Livestock and equipment were no longer provided; colonists had to acquire them themselves. The most significant change was the introduction of temporary leases, typically for 28 years, instead of perpetual lease. Landowners explicitly stipulated that colonists, as temporary lessees, would not be entitled to buy their land if such a right was granted to serfs.

New contracts maintained collective responsibility for unpaid rent and taxes from empty settlements until a successor was found. Colonists were also forced to accept a disadvantageous legal condition: they could not appeal to courts or administrative authorities in disputes with the Estate, while the Estate could do so. Propinacja rights (exclusive right to sell alcohol) were also stricter; a colonist found with alcohol from another source was fined, and a second offense could lead to eviction. Upon purchasing or inheriting (outside the direct line) a settlement, a *laudemium* equal to one year's rent was paid. New settlers did not receive forest servitude rights and had to pay for wood (*ugajne*).

In other colonies founded in the southeastern Kingdom of Poland during this period, the legal situation of colonists was similar. In Siemien, perpetual leases were granted with a 3-year exemption, but buildings had to be built at the colonists' expense, and rent was subject to revision every 20 years based on grain market prices. They also faced collective responsibility and eviction for non-payment, and paid *laudemium*. They received less land, about 13 morgów. In the Osiecki estate, the exemption period was longer (4 years), but settling on land requiring clearing took 8-10 years. Colonists in Czułczyce government estate were exceptionally exempted from *laudemium* and received free wood for buildings. Some still received forest and pasture servitudes.

Generally, common burdens included *laudemium*, rent, some harvest labor, and public taxes. Exemptions from rent usually lasted 3-6 years, but taxes were paid from the start. Landowners were reluctant to provide aid or other forms of traditional manorial care. Land was received through perpetual lease or temporary leases (25-28 years). Land transactions were allowed after some time but under strict manorial control, mainly to secure *laudemium* income. Sales of colonial farms were frequent but essentially transfers of lease rights, as the land remained the property of the manor. This differed from western parts of the Kingdom where the custom of full capitalist land purchase and sale was spreading.

Compared to earlier colonization models, especially Olęder settlement, and privileged Frederician and Josephine colonization, the situation of colonists in the first half of the 19th century worsened, and privileges were significantly reduced. This was linked to a more capitalist approach by landowners seeking to maximize income through *laudemium* and rents with minimal concessions. Colonists were often settled on poorer lands (swampy, forest clearings) and required to clear them. Payments from these lands provided additional net income for the manor economy.

The main burden was rent (*czynsz*), usually paid in two installments. In the Zamość Estate before 1864, colonists from old colonies paid low rents (2 zł/30 kop. per morg), while those from 19th-century colonies paid higher rents (3-4 zł/45-60 kop. per morg). Colonists in the Osiecki estate paid 4 zł (60 kop.) per morg, and in Zagaje near Niezabitów, 5 zł (75 kop.) per morg. Rent in the Zamość Estate was lower than that paid by Polish peasants there (50-80 kop. per morg) and lower than the average in the Lublin governorate (57.5 kop. in private estates) and the Kingdom of Poland (62 kop.).

Besides rent, colonists in the Zamość Estate paid taxes like *podymne*, kontygens liwerunkowy, road szarwark, and communal fees. Their kontygens was higher than other peasants, but they were not burdened with tithes or in-kind payments. Sample calculations for farms in Rogoźno, Płoskie, and Sitaniec in 1846 show total burdens ranging from 17.05 to 19.76 ruble and kopiejki. Based on a comparison with the potential income of a wealthier colonist in Sitaniec post-land reform, the 1846 burdens were estimated to be around 10% of the total income. Rent in government estates like Czułczyce was also not high, below the average for such estates in the region.

Land endowment was crucial. Statistics from 1842-1862 provide data on land types and average farm size. Initially (1842, 1847), cultivated land (arable and meadows) was about 50% of the total area, with the other half being forests and land requiring clearing. This indicates colonists in private estates were primarily settled on land needing preparation. Through their economic activity, the area of arable land increased significantly (to 68.5% in 1852 and 73% in 1857) and meadows increased, at the expense of land for clearing and forests. By 1862, arable land slightly decreased to 67.5% while meadows increased to 21%, possibly suggesting developing livestock farming.

Initially, the land structure of colonist farms differed significantly from Polish peasant farms, having much less arable land (36-41% vs. 70-74.5%) but significantly more forest (28% vs. 1-0.5%). Colonist land resembled manor land more at this stage. In later years (1857, 1862), colonist farms approached the structure of peasant farms regarding arable land (73-67.5% vs. 70-73%). They maintained a significant advantage in forest areas (10.5% vs. 0.5%) and a smaller one in meadows (21% vs. 13%), which offered potential for expansion and livestock development.

The average size of a colonist farm decreased from 30.6 morgów in 1842 to 20.5 morgów in 1852, before slightly increasing to 22.5 morgów in 1862. This decrease was attributed partly to landowners reclaiming land, especially newly cleared areas, to expand their manors. However, long-settled colonists, like those in the Zamość district, systematically increased their holdings. Compared to the average Polish peasant farm (24.3 morgów in 1842 and 23.1 morgów in 1847), colonist farms were initially larger by about 4-6 morgów.

Livestock holdings were also an important factor. The average number of livestock per colonist farm systematically increased between 1842 and 1862 for all categories: draft animals, cattle, pigs, and sheep. Livestock density per 100 morgów also increased, partly due to the decrease in average farm size and the growth in animal numbers. Low initial livestock levels in 1842 and 1847 reflected the difficulties and initial poverty of the settlers. Later data show they gradually increased their holdings. Wealth differences existed between colonists from different districts; those from Lublin, Hrubieszów, and especially Zamość were significantly wealthier in livestock than others, a difference attributed to settlement conditions, land size, and soil quality. Zamość colonists excelled in horses, oxen, cattle, and pigs. Lublin colonists led in sheep farming, linked to the weaving craft in the area.

Comparing colonist livestock per 100 morgów to manor and peasant holdings in 1842 and 1847, colonists significantly surpassed manors in horses, cattle, and pigs, while manors had more sheep. Compared to peasants, colonists initially had more horses and pigs, but fewer cattle and sheep. However, this average included newly settled, poorer colonists. When comparing only well-established colonists (from Hrubieszów, Krasnystaw, Lublin, Radzyń, Zamość districts in 1847) to peasants, the colonist farms significantly surpassed peasant farms in most categories, especially draft animals (more than 100% more horses per 100 morgów) and cattle/pigs (substantial advantage), though peasants had more sheep. This superiority in draft animals allowed for faster and more intensive economic development. Newly arrived colonists in Łuków and Siedlce districts, however, had significantly fewer livestock than the local population during their initial settlement. Compared to other colonists in the Kingdom, those in the southeastern region were generally poorer, except for the well-off Zamość colonists, who were comparable to wealthy colonists in western governorates.

Information on cultivation techniques is limited. Colonists generally did not differ much from local peasants in farming methods, using the three-field system. However, having more livestock, they used more manure. They grew similar crops but possibly in more favorable proportions, like more wheat on better land and more potatoes. They also possessed slightly better tools, such as iron plows and larger wagons. Women colonists played a significant role in growing vegetables and large-scale dairy farming, selling butter and cheese, with “Swabian cheese” from Zamość being particularly noted. It is important to note that these observations are often based on accounts of the wealthiest colonists, particularly from Sitaniec in the Zamość Estate, and may not reflect the situation of all settlers, especially those who arrived later and were less well-equipped.

In summary, the situation of German colonists, regarding their rights and rent, was generally better than that of local serfs and slightly better than local *czynsz* peasants. They often received more land, though it frequently required significant labor to prepare for cultivation. After becoming established, they generally possessed more livestock than the local population. While their farming methods were similar to local peasants, their overall material situation in some cases reached a higher level. This was primarily due to the better conditions they were offered but also partly a result of their systematic economic activity and labor. Along with other *czynsz* payers from the local population, colonists made a significant contribution to the development of the market-money economy, particularly the wealthier settlers from regions like Zamość.

Based on the sources provided, here is a discussion of the economic conditions of German colonists in the southeastern part of the Kingdom of Poland between 1815 and 1864:

The primary reasons for the influx of German colonists into Polish lands during the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries were socio-economic. Psychological explanations, such as a supposed natural instinct for migration and expansion among German peasants, lack objective and scientific basis. The colonization was a result of conditions in German agriculture, particularly in Prussia, during the 17th and 18th centuries. Concentration of land by large landowners and social stratification among peasants created a poorer population group inclined to migrate for material reasons. These processes intensified in the 19th century due to the Prussian land reform, which, serving the interests of large landowners, sanctioned primary accumulation in agriculture and dispossessed thousands of peasant families.

Some of these dispossessed families headed east because favorable conditions existed in Polish territories. Land was cheap, and foreign settlers were sought after by both the government and individual landowners. Especially after 1815, the authorities of the Kingdom of Poland, through planned settlement efforts, aimed to populate vacant lands on government estates that had been devastated by military actions and army movements between 1806 and 1815. Landowners were also eager to settle colonists, either replacing previously evicted peasants or on previously uncultivated areas, hoping to increase their income through laudemium (an entry or transfer fee) and higher rents. A favorable attitude from Polish administrative authorities towards German immigrants was an additional factor promoting colonization. Immigrants were usually exempted from customs and passport fees, military service, and were guaranteed a multi-year period free from obligations (wolnizna). However, in the 1830s and 1840s, with a large influx into private estates, these regulations were somewhat tightened. New rules aimed to transform spontaneous migration into an organized settlement action based on prior recruitment, matching local possibilities and interests.

Settlement conditions, privileges, and obligations varied depending on the period and landowner.

Colonists brought in by landowners were settled on designated plots immediately; those arriving independently searched for land themselves or through intermediaries. They were a very fluid and mobile group, not attached to one place.

Contracts, either written or sometimes oral, stipulated the rights and, particularly, the obligations of the colonists. The oldest preserved contracts from Ordynacja Zamojska (late 18th century) were based on the model for government estates and were very favorable to colonists.

They received about 30 korcy (approximately 23 morgi) of land per family, given under perpetual lease (dzierżawa wieczysta).

The annual rent depended on the land quality. Settlements could not be divided, and after the owner's death, land was inherited by direct descendants. After 15 years, a settlement could be sold with the manor's knowledge and consent, but only to a German.

Colonists could be removed for laziness, poor management, or two years of rent arrears, but this decision required circle approval, which was beneficial to them under Habsburg rule.

The Ordynacja was to build houses and farm buildings with the help of the colonists and provide livestock (a pair of horses/oxen, 2 cows, 1 pig, wagon, plow, harrow, shovel) and tools. Payment for livestock was due after 6 years in 6 annual installments.

Colonists were exempted from rent and other taxes for the first 3 years. In the first year, they received free housing, monetary and food support, and the right to forest servitude (serwitut leśny).

Besides rent, they were obligated to perform 12 or 8 days of corvée per year during harvest, paid at 10 gr per day, and adhere to propinacja (alcohol monopoly regulations).

Later contracts in the 19th century, especially in Ordynacja Zamojska, while similar in outline, differed significantly to the colonists' disadvantage.

The free period remained 3 years on empty land and 6 years on clearings, with plots averaging around 20 morgi on empty land.

Rent was in installments, and they were obligated to 8 days of foot corvée during harvest, paid at 20 groszy.

Colonists received wood and stone for buildings for free but had to pay for brick and lime in installments over 10 years. They no longer received livestock or tools; they had to own or purchase them.

The biggest change was the introduction of temporary lease, usually for 28 years, instead of perpetual lease. Contracts explicitly stated that as temporary lessees, colonists would not be entitled to benefit from future regulations allowing peasants to purchase their land.

New contracts maintained collective responsibility for arrears of evicted or absconded colonists and extended it to cover rent and taxes from empty plots until a successor was found.

Colonists were forced to accept a disadvantageous legal condition: they could not appeal to courts or administrative authorities in disputes with the Ordynacja, including eviction, while the Ordynacja could.

Propinacja regulations became stricter, with high fines for owning unauthorized liquor (4.5 rubles per gallon) and threat of eviction for a second offense.

Upon taking over a settlement, a buyer paid laudemium equal to one year's rent; non-direct heirs paid the same.

New settlers did not receive forest servitude and had to pay “ugajne” for wood.

In other colonies founded around this time in the southeast, the legal situation was similar. Some were settled under perpetual lease with a 3-year free period, but had to build at their own expense, and rent was subject to revision every 20 years based on market prices. They were subject to collective responsibility and eviction for two years of arrears, and paid laudemium. Land received was sometimes less (e.g., ~13 morgi). In Osiecki estates, the free period was longer (4 years), but fully developing land (especially clearings) took 8-10 years. Colonists in Czułczyce government estates were exceptionally exempt from laudemium and received free wood for buildings. Some retained forest and pasture servitudes.

Generally, common burdens included laudemium, rent, some harvest assistance (a few to over a dozen days), and all public taxes. Common privileges were a few years of exemption from rent (usually 3-6), while taxes were due immediately. Landowners were generally reluctant to provide aid or manorial care. Land was held under perpetual lease or temporary leases (25-28 years). Land transactions (sale, inheritance) were allowed after a period but under strict manorial control primarily to secure laudemium. Sales of colony farms were frequent but mainly involved selling lease rights; land remained the manor's property. This differed from western areas where full land purchase was becoming more common.

Overall, the conditions for colonists in the first half of the 19th century were somewhat worse than previous colonization models like Olęders or the privileged Fryderyk/Józef II settlements, with significantly reduced privileges. This was linked to a more capitalist approach by landowners aiming to increase income through laudemium and rents with minimal concessions. Colonists were often settled on poorer lands (swampy, clearings, forests) and required to clear them, turning these areas into additional income for the manor.

Rent (Czynsz) was the main burden.

It was usually paid in two installments.

Rent varied, but in old Ordynacja Zamojska colonies (late 18th century), it was very low (2 zł or 30 kop per morgi). In 19th-century Ordynacja colonies, it was higher (3-4 zł or 45-60 kop per morgi). In other estates, it was 4-5 zł (60-75 kop) per morgi.

Rent in Ordynacja Zamojska was lower than that paid by Polish peasants there (approx. 50-80 kop per morgi). Colonists from old colonies, paying about 50% less, were in a much better position. Their situation was even better compared to serfs (corvée burden ranged from 80 kop to 2 rubles per morgi). Colonist rent in Ordynacja was also lower than the average for private estates (57.5 kop) and the Kingdom (62 kop).

Rent in government estates (e.g., Czułczyce) was also low (30-40 kop per morgi), below the average for this category of estates in the region and Kingdom (44.5-49.5 kop).

Besides rent, colonists paid public taxes (podymne, kontygens liwerunkowy, szarwark drogowy, gminna contribution). They paid higher kontygens than other peasants but were not burdened by tithes or natural tributes to the manor. Examples of total burdens per farm in Ordynacja (rent + other obligations) ranged from 17.05 to 19.76 rubles in 1846. Estimating the income of a wealthy colonist in 1873 (1010 rubles from ~75 morgi), the burdens from 1846 (~20 rubles from ~27 morgi) might have represented about 10% of their income, suggesting they weren't excessively high.

Regarding land endowment and agricultural economy:

Colonists received various types of land: arable, forests, meadows, unused land, and land for clearing.

In 1842-1847, during the colonization growth period, arable land and meadows constituted about 50% of the total area, while the other half was forests and land for clearing. This indicates that colonists on private estates were mainly settled on land requiring preparation.

Over time, due to the colonists' work, the area of cultivated land increased significantly (arable up to 73% in 1857, meadows up to 21% in 1862) at the expense of land for clearing and forests.

Comparing land structure with local farms (1842-1847), colonists had much less arable land than peasants (36-41% vs 70-74.5%). Meadows were similar. Colonists had significantly more forests (28% vs 1-0.5%). Colonist land structure initially resembled manor lands (lower arable, high forest), understandable as it was allocated from them.

In later years (1857-1862), colonist land structure became closer to peasant farms, with arable land percentages reaching similar levels (73/67.5% vs 70/73%). Colonists still held a significant advantage in forest areas (10.5% vs 0.5%) and a smaller one in meadows (21% vs 13%), which facilitated further development (clearing, livestock).

The average size of a colonist farm decreased from 30.5 morgi in 1842 to 20.5 morgi in 1852, then slightly increased to 22.5 morgi in 1862. Across the Kingdom, the average size fell from 31.6 morgi (1842) to 19.9 morgi (1858). This decrease was partly attributed to landowners reclaiming land, especially newly cleared areas, to expand their manors. However, established colonists (e.g., in Zamość district) systematically increased their holdings.

Comparing average farm size with peasant farms (1842-1847), colonist farms were larger by about 6 and 4 morgi respectively (30.5 and 27.6 morgi vs 24.3 and 23.1 morgi). These differences were not very large and may have diminished later.

The livestock economy of the colonists showed significant development over time.

The average number of livestock per farm systematically increased between 1842 and 1862, for draft animals (horses, oxen), cattle, pigs, and sheep.

Higher livestock numbers per 100 morgi in later years resulted from both increasing livestock numbers and the decrease in total land area, indicating an intensification towards livestock farming. This was linked to the increase in arable land and meadows.

Low livestock figures in the early period (1842-1847) reflected the initial difficulties of establishing farms and the poverty of the newcomers. Data from later years shows they gradually increased their livestock holdings.

Significant differences existed between districts based on settlement time. Established colonists (Zamość, Lublin, etc.) were much wealthier in livestock than newly settled ones (Siedlce, Łuków) in 1842. Zamość colonists were particularly well-endowed in horses, oxen, cattle, and pigs. Lublin colonists led in sheep, possibly related to textile crafts, which some colonists engaged in to increase income.

Comparing colonist livestock with manor and peasant farms (per 100 morgi, 1842-1847): Colonists significantly surpassed manors in horses, cattle, and pigs. Manors held a decided advantage in sheep, reflecting their intensive farming practices.

Comparing with peasant farms (per 100 morgi, 1842-1847): Colonists initially had more horses and pigs but fewer cattle (later overtaken by peasants) and significantly fewer sheep. Peasant farms were rapidly increasing their livestock levels during this time.

Comparing established colonists (excluding the poorer Siedlce and Łuków districts) with peasants in 1847 (per 100 morgi), the colonists' livestock farming was significantly superior. They had over 100% more horses, and significant advantages in cattle and pigs. They held fewer sheep. Overall, they surpassed peasant farms in this area by about 50%. This strong advantage in draft power allowed for rapid and intensive economic development.

Newly arrived colonists in Łuków and Siedlce were significantly poorer in livestock than the local population during their initial settlement phase.

Compared to colonists in the western gubernias of the Kingdom (who had developing capitalist livestock farms), the southeastern colonists were generally poorer, with only the wealthy Zamość colonists being comparable.

Information on agricultural techniques and tools is limited. Governors' reports from the 1840s and 1850s noted that colonists did not differ significantly from the local population in farming methods. They commonly used the three-field system, even after the emancipation reform. However, they applied manure better due to having more livestock. They grew the same crops as peasants but possibly in better proportions, for instance, more wheat on better lands. They planted many potatoes, a practice learned in their homeland. Some in Ordynacja Zamojska began cultivating clover. They had somewhat better tools, including iron plows, harrows, large “German” wagons, and some wealthier ones had manual chaff cutters and grain cleaners. Colonist women excelled in gardening (vegetables) and dairy production, selling butter and excellent cheese (“Schwab cheese”) at markets. However, these details are largely drawn from descriptions of the wealthiest colonists in Zamość post-emancipation and are not representative of all colonists, especially the poorer, newly settled ones.

In summary, the situation of the German colonists, considering their rights and rent levels, was somewhat better than local Polish tenants and significantly better than serfs. They received more land, often requiring considerable effort to cultivate but offering higher incomes later. After establishing themselves, they generally possessed more livestock than the local population. While their farming techniques were quite similar to locals, their living standard was sometimes higher, primarily due to the better initial conditions they received and their generally systematic economic activity and work. Along with other tenants, they made a significant contribution to the development of the commodity-money economy, especially the wealthier colonists from the southeast.

Drawing on the provided sources, the land ownership situation for German colonists in the southeastern part of the Kingdom of Poland between 1815 and 1864 was complex, involving various types of tenure, specific conditions, and differences compared to the local Polish population and manor estates.

Colonists were either settled directly by landowners on designated plots or sought out land themselves, sometimes with the help of intermediaries. If they arrived independently, they often continued searching for better locations even after initial settlement and would relocate if suitable conditions were found, making them a “very fluid, mobile element”.

Contracts, sometimes oral, were established between the colonists and landowners or the government, strictly defining rights and, especially, obligations.

Older Settlements (late 18th century, notably in Ordynacja Zamojska): Early contracts, such as those from 1784 and 1785 in Ordynacja Zamojska, granted land under perpetual lease (dzi erżawa wieczysta). Each family received about 23 morgi 39 prętów of land, with an annual rent (czynsz) based on land quality. Settlements could not be divided, and inheritance was limited to direct descendants. After 15 years, settlements could be sold with the manor's consent, but only to a German. Removal from land was possible for poor management or two years of rent arrears, but this required confirmation from the *cyrkuł* (a significant advantage during the period under Habsburg rule).

19th-Century Settlements: Contracts for new settlers in the 19th century, even within Ordynacja Zamojska, were generally less favorable. Instead of perpetual lease, Ordynacja Zamojska introduced temporary lease (dzierżawa czasowa), typically for 28 years, with the possibility of renewal on new terms. These contracts explicitly stated that colonists, as temporary lessees, renounced any right to purchase their land, a benefit that might be granted to serfs (włościanie poddani) through future regulations.

Other Estates: Similar conditions existed in other colonies in southeastern Kongresówka. For example, Seweryn Biernacki settled colonists under perpetual lease but buildings were at the colonists' expense, and rent was subject to revision every twenty years based on market grain prices.

Compared to earlier patterns like the Olęders, Fryderykian, and Josephinian colonizations, the conditions for 19th-century colonists worsened, with reduced privileges. This reflected a more capitalist approach by landowners who aimed to maximize income through *laudemium* (an entry or inheritance fee) and rent with minimal concessions to the settlers.

The primary burden for colonists was the annual rent (czynsz), usually paid in two installments. The amount of rent varied, but in Ordynacja Zamojska, colonists in older settlements paid significantly less (2 zł / 30 kop. per morg) than those in 19th-century settlements (3-4 zł / 45-60 kop. per morg). Notably, the rent paid by colonists in Ordynacja Zamojska was lower than that paid by Polish peasants (50-80 kop. per morg). Czynsz in government estates like Czułczyce was also relatively low (30-40 kop. per morg).

Beyond rent, colonists were subject to various public taxes and fees, such as *podymne*, *kontygens liwerunkowy*, *szarwark drogowy*, and *składka gminna*. They paid a higher *kontygens* than other peasants but were exempt from tithes and payments in kind. Some contracts also required a few days of harvest work annually. Colonists were generally subject to *propinacja* regulations (monopoly on alcohol sales), facing fines or even eviction for violations. New settlers often had to pay *wkupne* or *laudemium* upon acquiring or inheriting a settlement (except in direct line). Unlike earlier settlers, they often did not receive forest servitude and had to pay *ugajne* for wood.

Colonists typically received a few years of exemption from rent (wolnizna), usually 3 to 6 years depending on the land, but still had to pay taxes during this period. Early settlements in Ordynacja Zamojska received a house, farm buildings, and livestock/tools, with the cost of livestock repayable over 6 years after an initial exemption period. However, in the 19th century, new colonists generally did not receive inventory and had to acquire it themselves. While materials for buildings were sometimes provided, colonists often had to pay for wood for heating or repairs. Landowners became less inclined to provide financial aid or other forms of manorial support.

Colonists were frequently settled on poorer lands that required significant effort to prepare for cultivation, such as swamps, forest clearings, or land requiring forest removal.

Statistics from 1842 and 1847 show that initially, arable land and meadows constituted only about 50% of the total area held by colonists, with the other half being forests and land designated for clearing. This indicates they received land requiring substantial development.

Through their work, the internal structure of their land holdings changed significantly over time. By 1857 and 1862, the share of arable land increased to about 73% and 67.5% respectively, while meadows also grew, at the expense of forests and clearable land. The increase in meadows in 1862 might suggest a growing emphasis on livestock farming.

Looking at specific districts, areas with newer settlements like Siedlecki and Radzyński initially had a much higher proportion of forest and clearable land (around 70%) compared to arable land and meadows (around 30%) in 1842. Older settlements in Zamojski district had a much higher proportion of cultivated land (85%) from the start. Rapid clearing led to significant increases in arable land in districts like Radzyński within just five years.

Comparing the land structure of colonists to that of Polish peasants and manor estates reveals differences.

To Peasants: In 1842 and 1847, colonists had significantly less arable land (36% and 41%) than peasants (70% and 74.5%) but held much more forest (28% vs 1-0.5%). They had similar amounts of meadows. Over time (by 1857-1862), the proportion of arable land for colonists became similar to that of peasants, but colonists retained a considerable advantage in forest area and a slight advantage in meadows. This difference in forest and meadow holdings provided colonists with potential for further expansion through clearing and development of livestock farming. To Manor Estates: Colonist land initially resembled the structure of manor lands in having a significant proportion of forest, which is understandable as it was often separated from these estates.

The average size of land per colonist settlement in the Lublin gubernia decreased from 30.6 morgi in 1842 to 20.5 morgi in 1852, before increasing slightly to 25.5 morgi in 1862 (though statistical limitations affect these overall figures). The source notes that this decrease in average size might be linked to landowners reclaiming land, especially freshly cleared areas, to consolidate their own estates. This phenomenon was observed in specific districts like Radzyński and Łukowski. However, it's suggested that this land loss might have been more prevalent in the early settlement period, and established colonists, like those in Zamojski district, systematically increased their holdings over time.

Comparing the average size to peasant holdings, colonist settlements were initially slightly larger (30.6 morgi in 1842 and 27.6 morgi in 1847 for colonists vs. 24.3 morgi in 1842 and 23.1 morgi in 1847 for peasants). However, this difference likely narrowed or disappeared as colonist holdings decreased in the following years while peasant holdings were more stable before 1864.

In summary, while some older settlements enjoyed favorable perpetual leases, 19th-century German colonists in the southeastern Kingdom of Poland were increasingly settled under temporary leases with reduced privileges and on lands requiring extensive work. Their key obligations included rent (often lower than Polish peasants, especially in older colonies), various taxes, and sometimes labor. Despite initial challenges, they actively transformed their land, significantly increasing the proportion of cultivated area. While their holdings were initially slightly larger than peasant farms, this advantage might have diminished over time due to factors including potential land reclamation by landowners. The terms of land tenure and associated burdens reflected the evolving economic strategies of the landowners in the region.

Drawing on the provided sources, the livestock farming practices and holdings of German colonists in the southeastern part of the Kingdom of Poland between 1815 and 1864 varied over time and differed significantly depending on the settlement's age and location, as well as when compared to the local Polish peasant population and manor estates.

In older settlements, such as those established in Ordynacja Zamojska in the late 18th century under perpetual lease contracts, each family initially received livestock and tools, including a pair of horses and oxen, 2 cows, a pig, a wagon, plough, harrow, and spade. The cost of the livestock was repayable over 6 years after an initial exemption period. However, for colonists settling in the 19th century, including new arrivals in Ordynacja Zamojska, the provision of inventory like livestock generally ceased, and settlers had to acquire it themselves.

Statistics from 1842 and 1847 reflect the challenges of this initial settlement period, showing relatively low livestock numbers per household and per 100 morgi of land, indicating the initial poverty of the newcomers.

Between 1842 and 1862, there was a systematic increase in the number of livestock per colonist household and per 100 morgi of land.

Per household: The average number of horses increased from 0.8 to 1.8, oxen from 0.3 to 0.9, cows from 1.7 to 2.7, calves from 0.7 to 1.2, pigs from 1.4 to 2.6, and sheep increased significantly from 1.1 to 3.9 by 1852, though it decreased slightly to 2.6 by 1862.

Per 100 morgi: This increase is even more evident when looking at livestock per unit of land. High indicators in the 1850s and 1860s were not only due to the natural increase in animal populations or purchases, but also due to a decrease in the overall land area held by colonists in those years.

This suggests that as their total land area slightly decreased, colonist farms were intensively developing in the direction of livestock farming. This process was closely linked to the concurrent increase in arable land and meadows.

Significant differences existed in livestock wealth across different districts, largely depending on how long the colonists had been settled.

Newer Settlements (Siedlecki, Łukowski): In 1842, recently settled or still-receiving colonists in districts like Siedlecki and Łukowski had significantly less livestock, especially draft animals (horses and oxen), compared to established colonists. For instance, in 1842, the horse and oxen index per household was 0.8 and 0.0 in Siedlecki, and 0.3 and 0.2 in Łukowski, compared to 2.9 and 1.0 in Zamojski.

Older/Established Settlements (Zamojski, Lubelski, Hrubieszowski, etc.): Colonists in districts where settlement had occurred earlier and was more established (such as Zamojski, and later Lubelski, Hrubieszowski) were much wealthier in livestock. Colonists from the Zamojski district particularly stood out, possessing the most horses, oxen, horned cattle, and pigs among all districts surveyed.

Sheep Farming: Colonists in the Lubelski district were leaders in sheep farming per household. Those in the Łukowski district also kept many sheep until the early 1850s, which was linked to the development of the weaving craft in that area, which colonists also engaged in to supplement their income. However, sheep farming did not develop on a larger scale, unlike in the western gubernias of the Kingdom, possibly due to a lack of industrial support.

Comparing colonist livestock numbers to those of local Polish peasants and manor estates provides further context, although statistical data for peasants and manors is limited to 1842 and 1847.

Compared to Peasants (Per 100 Morgi): In 1842 and 1847, colonists had more horses than peasants (2.7 and 3.9 vs. 2.1 and 3.7). Colonists initially had more pigs (4.6 vs. 3.5 in 1842), but this advantage narrowed by 1847 (7.1 vs. 7.4). Peasants had significantly more horned cattle (9.2 and 16.1 vs. 5.7 and 7.1) and sheep (11.1 and 13.4 vs. 3.7 and 8.1). Overall, in 1842 and 1847, colonist farms surpassed peasant farms in draft power (horses) but lagged behind in cattle and sheep.

Compared to Peasants (Per Household): In 1842, colonists generally possessed more livestock per household than peasants, including horses (0.8 vs. 0.5), pigs (1.4 vs. 0.8), and horned cattle (2.8 vs. 2.2), only holding fewer sheep (1.1 vs. 2.8). By 1847, this general advantage had leveled out due to the growth in peasant livestock farming and the influx of poorer colonists. Colonists still held more horses (1.0 vs. 0.8) and pigs (1.9 vs. 1.7), but peasants surpassed them in horned cattle (3.8 vs. 3.1) and sheep (3.1 vs. 2.2).

Established Colonists Compared to Peasants (1847): Focusing only on the more established colonists (from Hrubieszowski, Krasnostawski, Lubelski, Radzyński, and Zamojski districts) in 1847, their livestock holdings significantly exceeded those of the average Polish peasant. Per 100 morgi, established colonists had substantially more horses (8.3 vs. 3.7), horned cattle (22.1 vs. 16.1), and pigs (9.3 vs. 7.4), though fewer sheep (7.1 vs. 13.4). Per household, the differences were even more pronounced: horses (2.1 vs. 0.8), horned cattle (5.7 vs. 3.8), and pigs (2.7 vs. 1.7), while still having fewer sheep (1.9 vs. 3.1). This clear advantage in draft power (horses, oxen) was crucial for their rapid and intensive agricultural development.

Compared to Manor Estates (Per 100 Morgi): Colonists significantly surpassed manor estates in the number of horses, cattle, and pigs per 100 morgi in both 1842 and 1847. Manors, which were still largely based on serfdom in this region, only held a decisive advantage in sheep farming.

While newly arrived colonists were initially poorer in livestock, the data indicates that established German colonists successfully increased their livestock holdings over time, eventually surpassing the average local peasant population in key categories, particularly draft power. This stronger livestock base, alongside their diligence and potentially better initial conditions compared to serfs, contributed to their ability to develop their farms and achieve a somewhat higher material standard of living in some cases. Despite the wealth of established colonists, particularly in the Zamojski district, German settlers in the southeastern region were generally considered poorer than those in the western gubernias of the Kingdom.

Drawing on the provided sources, the agricultural practices of German colonists in the southeastern part of the Kingdom of Poland between 1815 and 1864 showed both similarities to and differences from those of the local Polish peasant population.

According to descriptions from the 1840s and 1850s, the colonists' farming methods were said to differ little from the local population. They commonly employed the three-field system of cultivation (“trójpolowy system uprawy roli”), a practice that was widespread even after the land reforms. Colonists cultivated the same types of crops as the local peasants.

Fertilization: Due to possessing more livestock, colonists were able to manure their land significantly better than the local population. This higher level of fertilization was a distinct advantage.

Specific Crops: While cultivating the same crops, they did so perhaps in slightly different, more advantageous proportions. On better soils, such as in Sitaniec (Ordynacja Zamojska), colonists sowed more wheat. They also planted a large quantity of potatoes, a crop they were familiar with on a larger scale from their homeland since the second half of the 18th century.

Fodder Crops: Although hay was the primary feed for their livestock, some colonists in Ordynacja Zamojska were starting to introduce the cultivation of clover (“koniczyna”).

Tools: Colonists generally had somewhat better tools than the local population. Tools in more common use among them included iron ploughs, harrows, and large “German” forged wagons. Some, particularly the wealthier ones, also owned manual chaff cutters (“ręczne sieczkarnie”) and grain cleaning mills (“młynki do czyszczenia zboża”).

Land Preparation: Many colonists were initially settled on land that required significant work to become arable, including forests and areas needing clearing (“karczunek”). Their economic activity involved the intensive clearing of these lands, which led to a significant increase in the area of arable land and meadows over time. This process was closely tied to the development of their livestock farming.

Gardening and Dairy Farming: The source highlights the role of women, especially in Ordynacja Zamojska, in gardening and dairy production. Colonist wives cultivated many vegetables in gardens and conducted large-scale dairy farming, producing and selling butter and high-quality cheese (“ser szwabski”) at markets.

Market Orientation: Wealthier colonists, particularly those in the Zamojski district, contributed significantly to the development of a commodity-money economy (“gospodarka towarowo-pieniężna”) through their substantial participation in market turnover.

It's important to note that the description of these more advanced practices, particularly regarding specific crops, tools, and market sales, is largely based on data from the Ordynacja Zamojska, focusing on some of the wealthiest colonists like Jakub Szpringer from Sitaniec. Newly settled colonists, especially those in districts like Siedlecki and Łukowski in the 1840s, were initially much poorer and their farming practices and livestock holdings lagged significantly behind the established groups and often even the local peasants initially. Therefore, the more intensive and somewhat advanced practices described were not uniform across all German settlements in the region but were more characteristic of the older, more prosperous colonies.